Focusing on Product : Materials That Deal With The Reading Skill
Overview
The
preparation of reading for second-languange instruction represents a striking
example of theory-to-practice model. Accordingly, in dealing with the skill of
reading, the designer must synthesize various elements; thus, theory becomes
embodied in the materials for instruction :
(a)
Theories about the
nature of reading itself, specially models of mature reading
(b)
the characteristics of
reading selections, or textual analysis
(c)
the spesific
characteristics and needs of second languange reader-learners.
The purpose of
this, is to show how this theory-to-practice model can be carried out.
In addition,
this part by concentrating on materials for the teaching of the reading skill,
makes clear our view that if the
activity of materials writing is to be taken seriously, the ‘how to’ literature
should be produced by those who have serious involvement with the particular
area under discussion.
The materials prepare’s role
Emphasis our
setting objectives according to learner’s purpose for studying second
languanges has brought about revived interest in the skill of reading,
particularly in foreign languange context where it takes on paramount
importance. But unlike the static approach of earlier times when reading in
foreign languange was ussually done trough grammar-translation, the
comminicative thrust has pushed forward the methodological discussion through
attention to both learners needs, textual properties and recognition of the
psychological and cognitive mechanisms associated with the complex skill of
reading.
The three elements
When concerned
with skill in second and foreign languange reading, the materials preparer
functions as a mediator between the text and the learner; this mediating
process brings the learner in touch with stategies for succesful reading which
are utilized by efficient, mature native-reader. Thus, the materials designer’s
task is to synthesize three disprate elementd into a compatible
inter-relationship :
(a)
reading strategies, or
a reconstructuin of what an efficient native reader does – probably
unconsciously
(b)
textual analysis, or an
examination of a text for the organizational and stylistic effect put there by
the writer
(c)
second languange
learner-reader characteristics. The materials preparer tries to help the second
languange learner-reader actually experience what has been described for
succcesful reading as a kind of accomplishment whereby discourse is created in
the mind by eand of a process of reasoning.
1.
Successful
Reading Strategies
The
designer draws on the considerable body of research into the reading process;
most significant are reports on the nature of successful reading. To summarize
tersely; good readers report using wide variety of coping strategies from the
often mentioned skimming and scanning, guessing and predicting, to using
internal and external context clues to derive meaning from texts. Prominent in
any account of reading strategies is the ability of good readers quickly and
possibly unconciously fit their attack skills to their personal objectives for
readding and to particular styles of writing. In preparing materials for the L2
learner-reader, the purpose is to recapitulate the ways in which mature readers
get meaning from print by building in skill-giving workouts which concentrate
on the process of reading itself. Attention to reading skills can range from
the format in which the mterial is presented to actual workouts that are
creadted for their appropriateness to the particular selection at hand.
2.
Features
of The Text
Textual
analysis is concerned with the description of discourse, one aspect of which is
work with written texts. This consist of analysis of how sentences and
paraghraphs are linked together to form larger texts.
3.
Second
Languange Learner-Reader Characteristics
The
materials prepare also takes into account differences in cultural background as
well as difficulty with the new languange. Along with discourse, attention to
the syntatic and lexical characteristics of selections is vital. In fact, a
number of problematic areas are continually being manipulated :
(a) The
linguistic competence of learner-reader
(b) The
potential for cultural misunderstanding in the thematic content of the
selection
(c) The
element of personal background or experience to understand the content of the
selections ?
(d) The
degree of reading facility learner-reader posseses in their native languange.
The designer
task
An approach in which the materials
preparer is corcerned with strategies for effective readin, the nature of the
reading passage, and learners characteristics produces results which are
different from those described in the last section. The materials preparer as
synthesizer pays attention to the following :
1. WORKOUTS
THAT BRING ABOUT INTERACTION WITH THE TEXT
The designer
attend to the discoursal, syntactic, and lexical features in the text and
reader interaction with the text. This goal is accomplised by developing types
of workouts that facilitate interaction primarily with the reading selection at
hand.
2. PROVIDING
VARIETY OF MATERIALS TO READ
A
good syllabus, course, or textbook should provide learner-readers with a
variety of materials and with a variety of reading strategis. A current, covert
attitude has been expressed in this statement : such-and-sauch student only
need to read English to be able to understand technical or scientific writing,
so we will only instruc them in how to cope with one kind of material.
3.
SELECTING TEXTS
APPROPRIATE FOR L2 LEARNER – READER
Although
current work in reading-to-learn has concertrated on more advanced learner-readers,
there are vital needs at the other end of the cintinuum, learnner-readers who
are probably adequate readers in their first language but are at a
low-intermediate or high-beginning level in language competence.
There
are a number of reasons for utilizing the narrative in a textsbook for lower
levels. First, narratives share universally the same kind of organizational
feature, the element of chronology, making them an easier form for the
inexperienced learner-reader. Second, the narrative seems to be a universal
type of writing in all societies. In addition, within the narrative type, there
are many levels of complexity, affording the designer mechanism with which to
control and structure the selections. Following the experience with narrative texts,
the learner-reader can move on to unedited, expository texts intended for a
large. The analysis of such texts focuses on a variety of writing conventions
which are typi al of expository writing and which contrary to the structure of
the narrative, are more specific.
A
Model reading lesson:’A Moral for any age’
Strategies for developing reading skills
Utilizing
a modified version of the study skills formula SQ3R ( Survey, question, read,
review, recite ), the directions call for two readings of the passage.
Preparation questions or items to look for during the first reading, the
questions after the first reading are directed at the same main points. During
the second reading, learners are guided into utilizing the organization of the
writing as a means for understanding the supporting details. Motivation is
provided in the section a note about which contains background about the author
and the passage. Following the workout section called applying strategies, the
learners are given an opportunity to reinforce the ideas of the reading
selection in talking about.
Features of the text
The workouts in
the sections during the second reading and applying strategies were written
after a careful analysis of the textual elements in the passage. as the first
lesson in textbook which includes thirty three such units, an effort was made
to ease reader-learners into the style of the book. Example : in during the
second reading an outline of the entire selection is given in order to
emphasize the reading skill of taking in whole paragraphs at a time.
Learners into
finding the answers. Later context clue workouts will omit the intermediate
steps that appear here.
Although the
focus in C., Locating Details, is on
verb tenses, the intent is not to include the traditional grammar exercise, but
rather to help learner grasp how a shift in tenses is used by this author to
set off the segment in which narrative unfolds.
As an example of
the fact that exercises draw on the textual characteristic of the passage
itself are likely to turn up with rare types, workout E., Looking for the Asides, is the only one of its kind to be found
among the thirty-three units, on occurrence which simply indicates that this
particular stylistic device is not too widely used by authors – but it is used.
Accommodating learners’ interest: working on hunches
Making decisions
about reading selections to use with small, homogeneous groups of learners who
are known to them can be a rewarding experience since in this cases the writers
can put their effort into finding passage which are tailor-made to the
audience. However, textbook writers can only rely on their intuitions regarding
topics of interest of large, heterogeneous groups.
Working on
hunches, we decide to select A Moral for Any Age because of both its qualities
of timeliness and timeliness. The topic of nuclear fission of is the burning
issue of the post World War II period. At the same time, the passage, since it
tells of an event that already constitutes twentieth-century history, cannot
become out-of-date.
But will the
selection be of interest to intermediate-advanced learners of English in a
variety of setting? The best effort that the materials writers can make is to
take every social indicators into account, being careful to turn aside their own
personal likes and dislikes as much as possible.
Guided questions for creating a reading lesson
The question
below, intended for materials prepare who want to be able to use authentic text
for reading instructions, point out features which can be incorporated into
exercises. The section 8.3.1 and 8.3.3 concentrate on reading skill elements,
while 8.3.2 is concerned with features in the text itself. The reading passage Neutron Weapons: upon which the steps
are based, appears below and on pages 162-3.
Motivation for reading
This passage
contains a narrative about the same historical incident that Jacob Bronowski
wrote about in A Moral FOR Any Age.
Thus, learners reading it following the Bronowski selection would already
possess background knowledge about the subject matter, a vital element in
reading comprehension.
1.
How would you active
readers’ previous knowledge of the subject matter to create motivation for
reading this selection?
2.
How would you acquaint
readers with the author and his qualifications?
3.
What other steps would
you take as preparation for reading?
4.
Is the tittle complete?
Could this fact be utilized as motivation, or would you use it later in the
lesson either as an issue for discussion or in a writing assignment?
5.
What are important key
words in the passage – words appear frequently, sometimes in paraphrases, that
are central to the main idea? How would you present these key words in order to
aid reading comprehension?
Textual discovery procedures
As a vital aid
for comprehension, skillful readers make use of organizational and stylistic
elements, although they are probably unconscious of these textual features
while reading. However, second and foreign language readers need to be guided
into conscious awareness of how a text has been constructed – as an aid to
reading. Effective reading material provide exercises which help learner and
find features such as main and supporting ideas, words that link sentences and
paragraphs along with other characteristics of the writing itself.
Sharing ideas
Even though
mature reading is an individual activity, motivation for reading can be
heightened through opportunities for talking about stimulating ideas.
1. How would you
guide an audience into further activities based on their reading of the
selection?
2. What further
assignment might follow after this one?
Practical Applications
1. Select two or
three potential passages for reading lessons that relate to each other in terms
of subject content. Try to find selections
that represent different types stylistically. For example, selections from
newspapers, popular magazines, professional journals, textbooks, news
magazines, etc. by ready to
justify your selections in terms of the reading interests and abilities of a
particular audience: age, level of language competence, ESC or EFL.
2. Using one of the passages you have selected,
make a careful analysis of the text. What organizational features lend
themselves for inclusion in a reading lesson workout? What textual features
lend themselves? For example, elements that connect sentences or paragraphs,
elements that create cohesion or unity in the text.
REFERENCES
Tag :
ENGLISH MATERIAL,
OTHERS,
Phrase Structure Rules
Phrase-structure
rules Some important linguist argue that the structure
of a word and the structure of a sentence are akin. Therefore they apply rules
which are used in sentence syntax to word syntax or the structure of words. They
are used to break down a sentence into its constituent parts.
1.
Noun Phrase
A noun phrase
(abbreviated NP) is a phrase which has a noun as its head word, or which performs the same
grammatical function as such a phrase.
Noun phrases often
function as subjects and objects, as predicative expressions, and as the
complements of prepositions or postpositions. Noun phrases can
be embedded inside each other; for instance, the noun phrase some of his constituents contains the
shorter noun phrase his constituents.
A → B + C
Some further examples
for English are as follows:
NP → | N | or |
V | or | A | or | P | + N
Noun phrase (NP)
·
John N
·
the boy Det N
·
a little boy Det
Adj N
·
a boy in a bubble Det
N PP
Phrase structure rule for NPs:
NP → (Det) (Adj) N (PP)
(where ‘()’ indicates
optionality)
2.
Verb
Phrase
A verb phrase
or VP is a unit composed of at least one verb and the dependents of that
verb – objects, complements and other modifiers, but not
including the subject. Thus in the sentence A fat man put
the jewels quickly in the box, the words put the jewels quickly in the
box may be considered a verb phrase – this consists of the verb put
and its dependents, but not its subject a fat man. A verb phrase is
therefore similar to what is considered a predicate in some contexts.
Verb phrases may be
either finite (based on a finite verb) or non-finite (based on a non-finite
verb, such as an infinitive, participle or gerund). While phrase structure grammars acknowledge both
types of VP, dependency grammars reject the existence of a
finite VP constituent (unlike the former, they regard
the subject as being among the verb's dependents). In this regard, the
understanding of verb phrases can be dependent on which theory is being
considered.
·
Sang V
·
ate the cake V NP
·
ate the cake hungrily V NP Adv
·
sang a song in the shower V NP PP
·
fell into the pond
slowly V PP Adv
Phrase structure rule for VPs:
VP V (NP) (PP) (Adv)
(where ‘()’ indicates optionality)
3.
Prepositional
Phrase
At the minimum, a
prepositional phrase will begin with a preposition and end with a
noun, pronoun, gerund, or clause, the
"object" of the preposition.
The object of the
preposition will often have one or more modifiers to describe it.
These are the patterns for a prepositional phrase:
preposition + noun, pronoun, gerund, or clause
preposition + modifier(s) + noun, pronoun, gerund, or clause
Here are some examples of the most basic
prepositional phrase:
At home →At
= preposition; home = noun.
In time →In
= preposition; time = noun.
With me →With
= preposition; me = pronoun.
About what we need →About = preposition; what we need
= noun clause.
4.
Adjective
Phrase
An adjective phrase (or adjectival
phrase) is a phrase
the head word of which is an adjective, e.g., very happy, quite
upset about it. The dependents of the head adjective the other words and
phrases inside the adjective phrase - are typically adverbs or prepositional
phrases, but they can also be clauses
(e.g. louder than you do). Adjectives and adjective phrases function in
two basic ways in clauses,
either attributively or predicatively. When they are
attributive, they appear inside a noun phrase and modify that noun phrase, and
when they are predicative, they appear outside of the noun phrase that they
modify and typically follow a linking verb. Example :
a. Sentences
can contain tremendously long phrases. - Attributive adjective
phrase
b. This
sentence is not tremendously long. - Predicative adjective phrase
a. A player faster
than you was on their team. - Attributive adjective phrase
b. He is faster
than you. - Predicative adjective phrase
5.
Adverb Phrase
Adverb is a word which gives an
additional detail about the meaning of a verb or an adjective
or another adverb.
In many sentences, an adverb may
be a phrase as in the following sentences. Just as the work of an adjective is
done by ‘a group of words’ called Adjective-phrase, so the work of an adverb
can be done by ‘a group of words’ which is called ‘ADVERB-PHRASE’.
Examples:
• Clinton ran quickly.
In this sentence, the adverb ‘quickly’ gives another detail about the verb ‘ran’.
• Clinton ran with great speed.
In this sentence, the same meaning has been conveyed by using ‘a group of words’-‘with great speed’.
• Clinton ran quickly.
In this sentence, the adverb ‘quickly’ gives another detail about the verb ‘ran’.
• Clinton ran with great speed.
In this sentence, the same meaning has been conveyed by using ‘a group of words’-‘with great speed’.
CONCLUSION
The
first rule reads: An S (sentence) consists of an
NP (noun phrase) followed by a VP (verb phrase).
The second rule reads: A noun phrase consists of a Det (determiner) followed by
an N (noun). Some further categories are listed here: AP (adjective phrase),
AdvP (adverb phrase),
PP (prepositional phrase).
Applying the phrase structure rules in a neutral manner, it is possible to
generate many proper sentences of English.
Tag :
ENGLISH MATERIAL,
OTHERS,
